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From Ancient Traditions to Modern Expressions: The Transformation of Yoga through Remix Culture

Smriti Sundar
16 min readMar 26, 2023

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For my Remix Culture class at the University of Toronto taught by Dr. Sara Grimes, we were asked to look at remix studies through the lens of something we cared about. As a Yoga Instructor trying to understand my own stance and position in the modern yoga industry, I thought this would be the perfect opportunity to try and understand its evolution better.

Introduction

The mixing and merging of different cultural expressions have been a natural and inevitable process that has occurred throughout human history. As people migrated and interacted with each other, they shared ideas, beliefs, traditions, and customs. Over time, these interactions led to the development of new cultural forms, as well as the evolution of existing cultural practices. Yoga is no exception to this phenomenon and is a living example of remix culture in action — a constant process of becoming — named, commodified, and repurposed (Navas, Gallagher, & Burrough, 2017, p.253).

Vastly different from its pre-modern counterparts, yoga today is a multi-billion dollar industry — a ubiquitous part of Western societies that has been bolstered by the fitness industry, marketed as a physical regiment and touted as an elixir. Entrepreneurs have developed and branded their own variations of it, attempted to copyright it, and even fought against accusations of inauthenticity and cultural appropriation. At the same time, the remixing of yoga has allowed the global population to envision a connection to its tradition in new ways, generate novel modes of cultural creation, and cultivate a more comprehensive and diverse community.

So how did yoga metamorphosize into the form we know it as today, and what made it so prone to remixing? How can we determine the authenticity of yoga as a cultural practice when it has been a living tradition that has undergone reinvention over and over again? What happens when we repurpose ideas or practices from other cultures? Does remixing of cultural artifacts perpetuate harmful stereotypes, dilute and appropriate traditional practices, or disrespect something that is considered sacred by many? These are some questions I wish to explore as I evaluate how remix is at play in yoga.

The Origins of Yoga

Yoga has a rich history that dates back thousands of years to ancient India, with the earliest textual references of the word being found in the Upanishads (Singleton, 2010, p.59), a collection of Hindu Sanskrit treatises from around the 3rd century BCE. Pre-modern yoga (pre-12th century BCE) drastically differed from the yoga we know today, and most of what we currently believe about yoga theory has emerged in the last century. Its evolution consists of a series of ‘yogas’ shaped by oral tradition, written scriptures, and cultural/ historical/social influences, that are diverse and sometimes contradictory — far from the timeless and uniform tradition it's often portrayed to be, especially in the West.

“This is not the first time that people have “reinvented” yoga in their own image. Every group in every age has created its own version and vision of yoga” (White, D.G., 2012, p.2).

He accounts one of the reasons for this to be the malleability of the word itself. Given that Sanskrit is one of the oldest languages in the world, one could hypothesize one cause of this to be the reflection of a dynamic and constantly evolving nature of human communication that mirrors the linguistic, cultural, and political context of the time period it is used in. The
Hindu scripture Netra Tantra, describes a subtle yoga and transcendent yoga — the former being a way to enter people’s bodies, and the latter involves female predators (yoginis) who consume the sins of the body that binds them to suffer rebirth (White, D. G., 2012, p.2). The Rig Veda (10th century BCE) — a sacred collection of Hindu Sanskrit hymns, and the Mahabharata (200–400 BCE) — a major Indian epic, describe it as a yoke or chariot (White, D. G., 2012, p.3).

Between the third and fifth century CE, references to yoga started stabilizing with the formulation of its core principles (though still not fixed) reflected in Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. Even in the third and fourth centuries CE, two very important sources — namely the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali and the Bhagavad Gītā, texts that are heavily drawn on to
reference “classical yoga”, did not give much importance to physical postures (āsanās) and breathwork practices (prānāyāmā) like is done in modern yoga. Only between the thirteenth and eighteenth centuries CE does the philosophical frameworks of Hatha Yoga (a term that is widespread and synonymous with physical yoga practice today) come in (Singleton, 2010, p.63–65). Popular texts of this period — the Siva Samhita, Hathayogapradīpikā, and the Gheranda Samhitā — begin to outline purification techniques (ṣaṭkarma), physical postures (āsanās), breathwork practices (prānāyāmā), bodily seals (mudrās), bodily locks (bandhas),
wheels/energy points (cakras), and the serpent energy (kundalinī).

Developed primarily as a spiritual practice, it was traditionally undertaken by ascetics as a means of achieving enlightenment and union with the divine, with the primary goal of liberation from the cycle of birth (mokṣa). The practice or system of discipline aimed to first purify the body and then train the mind to perceive with greater clarity.

“What is initially striking about the kind of transnational “hatha” yoga commonly taught today is the degree to which it departs from the model outlined in these texts. The most prominent departure is the primacy accorded to āsanā as a system of health, fitness, and well-being, and the relegation or elimination of other key aspects such as ṣaṭkarmas, mudrās, and even (though to a slightly lesser extent) prānāyāmā. ” (Singleton, 2010, p.67)

An important note to make during this time is the perceived image of Hatha Yoga practitioners in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries CE within the Indian context as well as by early European visitors. In pre-colonial India, the ascetics and yogis who practiced Hatha Yoga lived on the margins of society — they were seen as outside of the mainstream Hindu tradition and were often associated with practices that were considered taboo. As a result, Hatha Yogis were often marginalized and viewed with suspicion by the broader Hindu community (Singleton, 2010, p.156–163). The Europeans admired the intellectual philosophies of yoga theory, but negatively viewed and identified Hatha Yogis as recluse holy men and practitioners of black magic (perhaps because of Hatha Yoga’s relation to Tantra) who displayed violent behaviors and engaged in painful austerities. The tradition of Hatha Yoga was scarce and Hatha Yogis were considered “the emblem of the savagery and backwardness from which modern Hindus sought to dissociate themselves” (Singleton, 2010, p.84). This perception was part of a larger cultural project in India to distance oneself from traditional practices and embrace modernity and was driven by a variety of factors, including colonialism, nationalism, and social reform movements.

Modern Yoga and The Growth of Yoga Remix

The 19th century saw the onset of the popularisation of modern yoga, which can be traced back to a period when India was under British rule. During this time, intellectuals from both Indian and British backgrounds worked together to translate and interpret rare religious texts from South Asia. Sanskrit served as the academic language that united experts who otherwise spoke different regional languages. Harold Bloom emphasizes the importance of creative interpretation and the ways in which writers can build upon and transform the works of their predecessors (Bloom, H, 2011). This can be seen in the creative influence of Indian intellectuals who explored their own cultural and religious heritage in collaboration with
Western scholars.

“Remix culture is highly dependent on the abundance of cultural production and access to media objects by a large community” (Sonvilla-Weiss, S, 2017, p.135)

Prior to colonial rule, most texts in India were handwritten which meant its knowledge wasn’t widely circulated. But the 19th century saw an increase in access to print culture and this reshaped the way scholarship was communicated and set the groundwork to create new knowledge and augment existing information. The emergence of print media offered these
Indian scholars a new platform to assert their authority and interpretations of Sanskritic sources, while also challenging and redefining colonial views and agendas (Valdina, 2017, p306). Parallelly, indigenous educational systems were gradually being replaced by the prestige associated with the medium of English and Anglophone education. In traditional Indian society, the passing down of knowledge and wisdom was primarily through oral transmission called the Guru-Shishya Parampara, with teachers passing down their teachings to their worthy disciples/students through direct personal interaction. This was especially true in the transmission of sacred yoga theory. Thus, the emergence of print media as a new platform for sharing knowledge was a significant shift that allowed for the wider distribution of information beyond the confines of traditional oral transmission. However, this was not without its challenges, as it also threatened to undermine the authenticity of information as shared in the
traditional teacher-student relationship. Works generated in the form of translations, transliterations, and commentaries allowed yoga theory to continue and develop during this time — under the author’s own terms — without a necessary connection to a yoga lineage, composed years after their times, in a different context and language (Valdina, 2017, p.306).

“The print translation became a commodity for consumers who, likewise, were not keen to submit to the demands of a traditional teacher (and, moreover, did not have the required fluency in Sanskrit)” (Valdina, 2017, p.306).

It was during this time that the translations and interpretations of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali gained popularity — centuries after its origin. Swami Vivekananda was a prominent Indian philosopher and spiritual leader who played a key role in introducing yoga to the West in the late 19th century.

Through his interpretation of the Yoga Sutras in the book ‘Raja Yoga’, one of Vivekananda’s main goals was to revamp the misunderstood and misrepresented image of Hatha Yoga (and India) and present it in a more positive and palatable light to a Western audience. Disassociating from the body practices associated with Hatha Yoga, his approach was rooted in his own direct experience and practice of the tradition — it was a means of achieving spiritual liberation and self-realization through meditation, self-discipline, and renunciation. His actions illustrate the transformative potential of remix in challenging negative cultural associations, revitalizing traditions, and creating new cultural forms that reflect ever-changing values and beliefs.

“For at least three decades following the publication of Raja Yoga, popular yoga literature both in India and the west would often continue to cast suspicion upon, or simply ignore, hatha yoga.” (Singleton, 2010, p.157)

Few early Western proponents of Hatha Yoga and its physical practices, such as Pierre Bernard, Aleister Crowley, and Sir John Woodroffe, were often met with suspicion and ostracism from mainstream society for promoting a practice that was contrary to Christian values and was considered morally suspect, and even faced censorship (Jain, 2015, p.22–27). For example, Bernard was accused of promoting sexual practices as part of his interpretation of yoga, while Crowley was known for his interest in the occult and his involvement in controversial rituals. In comparison, Vivekananda’s subdued Raja Yoga drew a largely Western audience as his emphasis on self-realization and meditation resonated with a large number of Americans who were drawn towards alternative metaphysical movements like Christian Science and New Thought (Jain, 2015, p.34). Yet, members of his following were still marginalized by mainstream Western society, which perceived yoga in all its forms to be a threat to society (Jain, 2015, p.35).

“History shows that involvement in physical yoga cost a person more social currency than involvement in yoga focused on meditation, philosophy, or ethics.” (Jain, 2015, p.27)

The Resurgence of Postural Yoga

The resurgence of postural yoga was bolstered by the worldwide upheaval of physical culture, which emphasized health and fitness through exercise and sport. In India, there was a need to promote an indigenous physical culture as a means of building a stronger, healthier nation that could resist colonialism and the British notion of “racial degeneracy” (Singleton,
2010, p.164, 190). To achieve this, the physical practices of Hatha Yoga were redefined and reconstructed to make it appear as a valid fitness method. Previously, Hatha Yoga was looked down upon and criticized by elites in Europe, America, and India. The revival of postural yoga involved a kind of “remixing” of various sources and influences, including traditional Hatha Yoga, Indian wrestling, European gymnastics, American bodybuilding, and military calisthenics, among others. This revival can be seen as a process of creative synthesis that combined and reinterpreted different influences and traditions while still retaining the core principles and practices of traditional yoga. However, it raises questions about the authenticity of postural yoga as a cultural practice and the ways in which cultural practices can be adapted and transformed in response to external pressures, such as the colonialist myth of Western superiority and the need for validation from Western culture.

During this time, the role of individual Indian teachers in the postural yoga revival emerged as another theme. Many influential figures in modern yoga, including T. Krishnamacharya, B.K.S Iyengar, and K.P Jois, were instrumental in developing and popularizing specific sets of postures or “sequences” that were an extension of traditional postures. The authority and charisma of these teachers were crucial in establishing the legitimacy and appeal of their particular approach to yoga. These sequences often reflected the teacher’s own style, philosophy, experiences, and insights into yoga, while maintaining respect for the ancient texts and practices of the Indian yoga tradition. Navas’s definition of reflexivity in remix (Navas, 2014, p.81) parallels this. While these sequences may challenge the aura of the original postures through variations in posture or sequence, and even claim autonomy while carrying the original names, the original sources of the postures and techniques remain a vital part of the remix. Various spin-offs of “power yoga” and “power vinyasa” that have flourished, particularly in America since the early 1990s, often draw explicit inspiration from these influential figures (Singleton, 2010, p.352).

The revival was made possible by new media technologies such as print, photography, and film, which allowed for the widespread dissemination of images and videos of yoga postures and their variations. Unlike the abstract nature of mind yoga, body yoga suddenly became a tangible commodity. These new media technologies not only facilitated the spread of yoga postures across different cultural contexts but also enabled practitioners to develop new and innovative variations on traditional postures.

“ One of the main reasons that postural yoga itself gained popularity is the simple fact that it had visual appeal within this society and imparted an immediacy to what could otherwise be (when confined to textual exposition) an opaque, perplexing subject. The yoga body was brought into the light.” (Singleton, 2010, p.330)

The Hybridization of Yoga and Modern Trends

As yoga gained popularity in the West during the 1950s, it entered a cultural landscape that had already experienced a surge in interest in physical fitness and improvement predominantly marketed by and for females (Shearer, 2022, pg. 182), and even today remains a female-dominated industry. In the West, the image of the yogi has undergone a significant remix, shifting from the traditional image of a male holy man to that of the white, fit, and fashionable woman. This is closely linked to the commodification and popularisation of yoga (as a result of consumerism and capitalism), as well as the influence of Western beauty standards. This has allowed the perpetuation of harmful stereotypes, reducing it to a consumer product that can be sold through the promotion of a particular body image. Furthermore, it reinforces the cultural power dynamics that privilege white, western beauty standards over those of other cultures, perpetuating a narrow and exclusionary vision of what it means to be a “yogi.” This resulted in many subsets within the yoga culture catered to focus on women, such as “Yoga for Pregnancy” and “Yoga for Menopause,” (Shearer, 2022, pg. 177).

Creative influence is often a side effect of learning a medium or culture. As one becomes more immersed in a particular art form or cultural context, they naturally begin to absorb and incorporate elements from other mediums or cultures, resulting in a hybridized approach to their own work — In essence, endless hybridization is both a product of and a catalyst for creative growth (Knobel & Lankshear, 2008). Classical yoga was never a uniform system of teaching, with over forty different traditional practices identified by leading yoga academics (Shearer, 2022, pg. 286). But as yoga spread and evolved across different cultures and regions, it has absorbed and integrated elements from diverse traditions, resulting in creations such as Power Yoga, Yogalates, and Yin Yoga to name a few. What is new in contemporary yoga is the speed and type of innovation that is taking place brought on by the onset of social media — the creation of ‘Neo Yogas’ that can spread at rapid speeds (Shearer, 2022, pg. 286). These hybrid styles often have catchy names and are marketed heavily on social media platforms, where influencers and teachers can showcase their unique approach to yoga and attract followers from around the world.

Authenticity and Cultural Appropriation

If one applied a narrow definition of authenticity in the context of yoga, it could be defined as the degree to which a practitioner adheres to traditional yoga teachings, practices, and principles. This includes following the guidance of experienced yoga teachers, studying ancient yoga texts, and respecting the cultural origins and history of the practice. If one argues that authentic yoga must adhere strictly to the teachings and practices outlined in these ancient texts — which texts are we referring to? Additionally, who has the authority to define what is considered “traditional” or “authentic” in yoga? Is it the original creators of yoga practices and teachings, or the contemporary practitioners who continue to evolve and adapt the practice? These questions highlight the subjective nature of authenticity and how it can vary depending on individual perspectives and cultural contexts.

The concept of “the death of the author,” (Barthes, 1967, p.1–6), suggests that once a work is released into the world, it takes on a life of its own and is subject to interpretation by readers and cultural contexts. This idea can be applied to the evolution of modern yoga, particularly in relation to the role of the author in ancient yoga texts. In traditional Indian culture, the
author of a text is seen as an authority figure, and their words are often taken as gospel truth. However, as yoga became more widely practiced and interpreted in different cultural contexts, the role of the author became less central. Modern yoga practitioners often draw from a variety of ancient texts and interpret them in new and creative ways, blending
different traditions and perspectives. In this sense, the death of the author in yoga can be seen as a liberation from the limitations of strict adherence to traditional texts and a recognition that yoga is a living tradition that evolves with the times. If the author’s authority had been maintained, would it have limited the creativity and innovation we see in the yoga industry today? — perhaps. However, without a clear authorial voice, how do we determine what is true or legitimate within the practice of yoga? How can we respect the origins and cultural context of yoga while also adapting it to modern needs and perspectives? While authenticity does not have to be static, the role of the author in this context then is to provide context and clarity around the origins and meaning of cultural artifacts and to advocate for ethical and responsible remixing practices.

Many Western yoga teachers today lack cultural sensitivity when it comes to the language and practices associated with yoga. Sanskrit terms are often mispronounced, mantras are mistranslated, and there exists a general ignorance of the subtle nuances of the yoga that is taught. These shortcomings are often due to a lack of proper education when training
programs focus solely on physical fitness. The practice of yoga is often regarded as a universal spiritual tradition that belongs to all of humanity — as such, it should be utilized for the betterment of all human beings, rather than being monopolized by any particular nation or group. While this idea of inclusivity may resonate with many people, it is important to understand the origins of the practice and its implications. The colonial myth that portrays non-western cultures as being inherently inferior and in need of Western intervention, control, and validation, in a way, forced the resurgence of postural yoga to adapt to the Western fitness culture as a means of gaining legitimacy and acceptance. The transformation of yoga into a cherry-picked commodified industry not only eroded its traditional roots but also perpetuated stereotypes of Indian culture as mystical and exotic, further reinforcing the colonialist discourse. Recognizing the contributions of marginalized individuals to cultural innovations is crucial for understanding and challenging dominant cultural narratives that ignore or minimize their impact (De Kosnik, 2019). Recognizing the origins of yoga in India is important to challenge the cultural appropriation of yoga in the West where yoga is often marketed as a commodity, divorced from its cultural and spiritual roots. Acknowledging India’s contribution to the development of yoga can challenge the notion that the West is the sole source of innovation and progress. Furthermore, understanding the history of yoga in India can help to challenge the dominant narrative that yoga is solely a physical practice, without any connection to its spiritual and philosophical roots.

Conclusion

The evolution of yoga over the centuries is a testament to the power of remix culture. From its early origins as a spiritual practice undertaken by ascetics to its modern-day form as a multi-billion dollar industry, yoga has undergone numerous transformations and adaptations. While remixing has allowed for the creation of new cultural forms and has helped to broaden the community of practitioners, it has also raised questions about authenticity, cultural appropriation, and the perpetuation of harmful stereotypes. As yoga continues to evolve and adapt to new cultural contexts, it is important to recognize and acknowledge its traditional roots and the contributions of those who have helped to shape it. This includes respecting the cultural origins and history of the practice, as well as recognizing the authority and wisdom of experienced yoga teachers. Ultimately, the future of yoga lies in striking a balance between honoring its traditional roots and adapting to modern needs and perspectives, while also advocating for ethical and responsible remixing practices.

Appendix

Yoga
Remix Culture
Remix
Culture
Evolution

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Smriti Sundar
Smriti Sundar

Written by Smriti Sundar

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Architect turned UX Designer; Illustrator; Yoga Instructor | Follow this space for adventures in Design, Art, Yoga, Philosophy, Travel, Food, and Writing

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